EPA’s STATE AND LOCAL CLIMATE CHANGE PROGRAM Climate Change Resources: Glossary Many of the following terms are found in the EPA’s State and Local Climate Change Outreach Toolkit. A number of other terms that relate to global climate change are included as well. ABIOTIC 7 Nonliving. Compare biotic. ABSORPTION OF RADIATION 1 The uptake of radiation by a solid body, liquid or gas. The absorbed energy may be transferred or re-emitted. ACID DEPOSITION 6 A complex chemical and atmospheric process whereby recombined emissions of sulfur and nitrogen compounds are redeposited on Earth in wet or dry form. See acid rain. ACID RAIN 6 Rainwater that has an acidity content greater than the postulated natural pH of about 5.6. It is formed when sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides, as gases or fine particles in the atmosphere, combine with water vapor and precipitate as sulfuric acid or nitric acid in rain, snow, or fog. The dry forms are acidic gases or particu- lates. See acid deposition. ACID SOLUTION 7 Any water solution that has more hydrogen ions (H+) than hydroxide ions (OH-); any water solution with a pH less than 7. See basic solution, neutral solution. ACIDIC 7 See acid solution. ADIABATIC PROCESS 9 A thermodynamic change of state of a system such that no heat or mass is trans- ferred across the boundaries of the system. In an adiabatic process, expansion always results in cooling, and compression in warming. AEROSOL 1&9 Particulate matter, solid or liquid, larger than a molecule but small enough to remain suspended in the atmosphere. Natural sources include salt particles from sea spray, dust and clay particles as a result of weathering of rocks, both of which are carried upward by the wind. Aerosols can also originate as a result of human activities and are often considered pollutants. Aerosols are important in the atmos- phere as nuclei for the condensation of water droplets and ice crystals, as partici- pants in various chemical cycles, and as absorbers and scatters of solar radiation, thereby influencing the radiation budget of the Earth’s climate system. See cli- mate, particulate matter. AFFORESTATION 2 Planting of new forests on lands that have not been recently forested. 1 EPA’s STATE AND LOCAL CLIMATE CHANGE PROGRAM AIR CARRIER 8 An operator (e.g., airline) in the commercial system of air transportation consisting of aircraft that hold certificates of Public Convenience and Necessity issued by the Department of Transportation to conduct scheduled or non-scheduled flights within the country or abroad. AIR POLLUTANT See air pollution. AIR POLLUTION 7 One or more chemicals or substances in high enough concentrations in the air to harm humans, other ani- mals, vegetation, or materials. Such chemicals or physi- cal conditions (such as excess heat or noise) are called air pollutants. ALBEDO 9 The fraction of the total solar radiation incident on a body that is reflected by it. ALKALINITY 6 Having the properties of a base with a pH of more than 7. A common alkaline is baking soda. ALTERNATIVE ENERGY 6 Energy derived from nontraditional sources (e.g., com- pressed natural gas, solar, hydroelectric, wind). ANAEROBIC 6 A life or process that occurs in, or is not destroyed by, the absence of oxygen. ANAEROBIC DECOMPOSITION 2 The breakdown of molecules into simpler molecules or atoms by microorganisms that can survive in the partial or complete absence of oxygen. ANAEROBIC LAGOON 2 A liquid-based manure management system, character- ized by waste residing in water to a depth of at least six feet for a period ranging between 30 and 200 days. Bacteria produce methane in the absence of oxygen while breaking down waste. ANAEROBIC ORGANISM 7 Organism that does not need oxygen to stay alive. See aerobic organism. ANTARCTIC “OZONE HOLE” 6 Refers to the seasonal depletion of stratospheric ozone in a large area over Antarctica. See ozone layer. ANTHRACITE 2 A hard, black, lustrous coal containing a high percentage of fixed carbon and a low percentage of volatile matter. Often referred to as hard coal. ANTHROPOGENIC 2 Human made. In the context of greenhouse gases, emissions that are produced as the result of human activities. ARABLE LAND 7 Land that can be cultivated to grow crops. AROMATIC 6 Applied to a group of hydrocarbons and their deriva- tives characterized by the presence of the benzene ring. ASH 6 The mineral content of a product remaining after com- plete combustion. ASPHALT 2 A dark-brown-to-black cement-like material containing bitumen as the predominant constituent. It is obtained by petroleum processing. The definition includes crude asphalt as well as the following finished products: cements, fluxes, the asphalt content of emulsions (exclu- sive of water), and petroleum distillates blended with asphalt to make cutback asphalt. ATMOSPHERE 1 The mixture of gases surrounding the Earth. The Earth’s atmosphere consists of about 79.1 percent nitrogen (by volume), 20.9 percent oxygen, 0.036 percent carbon diox- ide and trace amounts of other gases. The atmosphere can be divided into a number of layers according to its mixing or chemical characteristics, generally determined by its thermal properties (temperature). The layer nearest the Earth is the troposphere, which reaches up to an alti- tude of about 8 kilometers (about 5 miles) in the polar regions and up to 17 kilometers (nearly 11 miles) above the equator. The stratosphere, which reaches to an alti- tude of about 50 kilometers (31miles) lies atop the tropos- phere. The mesosphere, which extends from 80 to 90 kilo- meters atop the stratosphere, and finally, the thermos- phere, or ionosphere, gradually diminishes and forms a fuzzy border with outer space. There is relatively little mix- ing of gases between layers. ATMOSPHERIC LIFETIME See lifetime. ATOMIC WEIGHT 6 The average weight (or mass) of all the isotopes of an element, as determined from the proportions in which they are present in a given element, compared with the mass of the 12 isotope of carbon (taken as precisely 12.000), that is the official international standard; mea- sured in daltons. ATOMS 7 Minute particles that are the basic building blocks of all chemical elements and thus all matter. AVIATION GASOLINE 8 All special grades of gasoline for use in aviation recipro- cating engines, as cited in the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) specification D 910. Includes all refinery products within the gasoline range that are to be marketed straight or in blends as aviation gasoline without further processing (any refinery operation except mechanical blending). Also included are finished compo- nents in the gasoline range, which will be used for blend- ing or compounding into aviation gasoline. BACTERIA 7 One-celled organisms. Many act as decomposers that break down dead organic matter into substances that dissolve in water and are used as nutrients by plants. BARREL (bbl) 6 A liquid-volume measure equal to 42 United States gallons at 60 degrees Fahrenheit; used in expressing quantities of petroleum-based products. 2 EPA’s STATE AND LOCAL CLIMATE CHANGE PROGRAM BASIC SOLUTION 7 Water solution with more hydroxide ions (OH-) than hydro- gen ions (H+); water solutions with pH greater than 7. See acid solution, alkalinity, acid. BIODEGRADABLE 7 Material that can be broken down into simpler substances (elements and compounds) by bacteria or other decom- posers. Paper and most organic wastes such as animal manure are biodegradable. See nonbiodegradable. BIOFUEL 3&7 Gas or liquid fuel made from plant material (biomass). Includes wood, wood waste, wood liquors, peat, railroad ties, wood sludge, spent sulfite liquors, agricultural waste, straw, tires, fish oils, tall oil, sludge waste, waste alcohol, municipal solid waste, landfill gases, other waste, and ethanol blended into motor gasoline. BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE 7 Natural processes that recycle nutrients in various chemi- cal forms from the environment, to organisms, and then back to the environment. Examples are the carbon, oxy- gen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and hydrologic cycles. BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD) 7 Amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decom- posers to break down the organic materials in a given volume of water at a certain temperature over a speci- fied time period. See BOD5. BIOMASS 7 Total dry weight of all living organisms that can be sup- ported at each tropic level in a food chain. Also, materi- als that are biological in origin, including organic material (both living and dead) from above and below ground, for example, trees, crops, grasses, tree litter, roots, and animals and animal waste. BIOMASS ENERGY 1 Energy produced by combusting biomass materials such as wood. The carbon dioxide emitted from burning bio- mass will not increase total atmospheric carbon dioxide if this consumption is done on a sustainable basis (i.e., if in a given period of time, regrowth of biomass takes up as much carbon dioxide as is released from biomass com- bustion). Biomass energy is often suggested as a replace- ment for fossil fuel combustion. BIOSPHERE 2&7 The living and dead organisms found near the Earth’s sur- face in parts of the lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydros- phere. The part of the global carbon cycle that includes living organisms and biogenic organic matter. BIOTIC 7 Living. Living organisms make up the biotic parts of ecosystems. See abiotic. BITUMEN 7 Gooey, black, high-sulfur, heavy oil extracted from tar sand and then upgraded to synthetic fuel oil. See tar sand. BITUMINOUS COAL 2 A dense, black, soft coal, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material. The most common coal, with moisture content usually less than 20 percent. Used for generating electricity, making coke, and space heating. BOD5 2 The biochemical oxygen demand of wastewater during decomposition occurring over a 5-day period. A measure of the organic content of wastewater. See biological oxy- gen demand. BRITISH THERMAL UNIT (Btu) 3 The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree of Fahrenheit at or near 39.2 degrees Fahrenheit. BUNKER FUEL 2 Fuel supplied to ships and aircraft for international trans- portation, irrespective of the flag of the carrier, consisting primarily of residual and distillate fuel oil for ships and jet fuel for aircraft. BUS 6&8 A rubber-tired, self-propelled, manually steered vehicle that is generally designed to transport 30 individuals or more. Bus types include intercity, school and transit. CARBON BLACK 2 An amorphous form of carbon, produced commercially by thermal or oxidative decomposition of hydrocarbons and used principally in rubber goods, pigments, and print- er’s ink. CARBON CYCLE 2 All carbon reservoirs and exchanges of carbon from reservoir to reservoir by various chemical, physical, geo- logical, and biological processes. Usually thought of as a series of the four main reservoirs of carbon interconnect- ed by pathways of exchange. The four reservoirs, regions of the Earth in which carbon behaves in a systematic manner, are the atmosphere, terrestrial biosphere (usually includes freshwater systems), oceans, and sediments (includes fossil fuels). Each of these global reservoirs may be subdivided into smaller pools, ranging in size from indi- vidual communities or ecosystems to the total of all living organisms (biota). CARBON DIOXIDE 2 A colorless, odorless, non-poisonous gas that is a normal part of the ambient air. Carbon dioxide is a product of fossil fuel combustion. Although carbon dioxide does not directly impair human health, it is a greenhouse gas that traps terrestrial (i.e., infrared) radiation and contributes to the potential for global warming. See global warming. CARBON EQUIVALENT (CE) 1 A metric measure used to compare the emissions of the different greenhouse gases based upon their global warming potential (GWP). Greenhouse gas emissions in the United States are most commonly expressed as “mil- lion metric tons of carbon equivalents” (MMTCE). Global warming potentials are used to convert greenhouse gases to carbon dioxide equivalents. See global warming potential, greenhouse gas. CARBON FLUX 9 The rate of exchange of carbon between pools (i.e., reservoirs). CARBON INTENSITY The relative amount of carbon emitted per unit of energy or fuels consumed. 3 EPA’s STATE AND LOCAL CLIMATE CHANGE PROGRAM CARBON POOL 9 The reservoir containing carbon as a principal element in the geochemical cycle. CARBON SEQUESTRATION 1 The uptake and storage of carbon. Trees and plants, for example, absorb carbon dioxide, release the oxygen and store the carbon. Fossil fuels were at one time biomass and continue to store the carbon until burned. See car- bon sinks. CARBON SINKS 1 Carbon reservoirs and conditions that take-in and store more carbon (i.e., carbon sequestration) than they release. Carbon sinks can serve to partially offset green- house gas emissions. Forests and oceans are large car- bon sinks. See carbon sequestration. CARBON TETRACHLORIDE (CCl 4 ) 11 A compound consisting of one carbon atom and four chlorine atoms. It is an ozone depleting substance. Carbon tetrachloride was widely used as a raw material in many industrial applications, including the production of chlorofluorocarbons, and as a solvent. Solvent use was ended in the United States when it was discovered to be carcinogenic. See ozone depleting substance. CHEMICAL REACTION 7 Interaction between chemicals in which there is a change in the chemical composition of the elements or compounds involved. CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS (CFCs) 7 Organic compounds made up of atoms of carbon, chlo- rine, and fluorine. An example is CFC-12 (CCl 2 F 2 ), used as a refrigerant in refrigerators and air conditioners and as a foam blowing agent. Gaseous CFCs can deplete the ozone layer when they slowly rise into the stratosphere, are broken down by strong ultraviolet radiation, release chlorine atoms, and then react with ozone molecules. See ozone depleting substance. CLIMATE 1&9 The average weather, usually taken over a 30 year time period, for a particular region and time period. Climate is not the same as weather, but rather, it is the average pat- tern of weather for a particular region. Weather describes the short-term state of the atmosphere. Climatic elements include precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind velocity, phenomena such as fog, frost, and hail- storms, and other measures of the weather. See weather. CLIMATE CHANGE 1 The term “climate change” is sometimes used to refer to all forms of climatic inconsistency, but because the Earth’s climate is never static, the term is more properly used to imply a significant change from one climatic condition to another. In some cases,“climate change” has been used synonymously with the term,“global warming”; scientists however, tend to use the term in the wider sense to also include natural changes in climate. See global warming, greenhouse effect, enhanced greenhouse effect, radiative forcing. CLIMATE FEEDBACK 1 An atmospheric, oceanic, terrestrial, or other process that is activated by direct climate change induced by changes in radiative forcing. Climate feedbacks may increase (positive feedback) or diminish (negative feed- back) the magnitude of the direct climate change. CLIMATE LAG 1 The delay that occurs in climate change as a result of some factor that changes very slowly. For example, the effects of releasing more carbon dioxide into the atmos- phere may not be known for some time because a large fraction is dissolved in the ocean and only released to the atmosphere many years later. CLIMATE SENSITIVITY 1 The equilibrium response of the climate to a change in radiative forcing; for example, a doubling of the carbon dioxide concentration. See radiative forcing. CLIMATE SYSTEM (OR EARTH SYSTEM) 1 The atmosphere, the oceans, the biosphere, the cryosphere, and the geosphere, together make up the climate system. COAL 2 A black or brownish black solid, combustible substance formed by the partial decomposition of vegetable matter without access to air. The rank of coal, which includes anthracite, bituminous coal, subbituminous coal, and lig- nite, is based on fixed carbon, volatile matter, and heat- ing value. Coal rank indicates the progressive alteration, or coalification, from lignite to anthracite. See anthracite, bituminous coal, subbituminous coal, lignite. COAL COKE 2 A hard, porous product made from baking bituminous coal in ovens at temperatures as high as 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit. It is used both as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. COAL GASIFICATION 7 Conversion of solid coal to synthetic natural gas (SNG) or a gaseous mixture that can be burned as a fuel. COAL LIQUEFACTION 7 Conversion of solid coal to a liquid fuel such as synthetic crude oil or methanol. COALBED METHANE 2 Methane that is produced from coalbeds in the same manner as natural gas produced from other strata. Methane is the principal component of natural gas. CO-CONTROL BENEFIT 10 The additional benefit derived from an environmental poli- cy that is designed to control one type of pollution, while reducing the emissions of other pollutants as well. For example, a policy to reduce carbon dioxide emissions might reduce the combustion of coal, but when coal combustion is reduced, so too are the emissions of particu- lates and sulfur dioxide. The benefits associated with reduc- tions in emissions of particulates and sulfur dioxide are the co-control benefits of carbon dioxide reductions. COGENERATION 7 Production of two useful forms of energy, such as high- temperature heat and electricity, from the same process. COMBUSTION 2 Chemical oxidation accompanied by the generation of light and heat. 4 EPA’s STATE AND LOCAL CLIMATE CHANGE PROGRAM COMMERCIAL SECTOR 8 An area consisting of non-housing units such as non-man- ufacturing business establishments (e.g., wholesale and retail businesses), health and educational institutions, and government offices. COMPOST 7 Partially decomposed organic plant and animal matter that can be used as a soil conditioner or fertilizer. COMPOSTING 7 Partial breakdown of organic plant and animal matter by aerobic bacteria to produce a material that can be used as a soil conditioner or fertilizer. See compost. COMPOUND 7 Combination of two or more different chemical elements held together by chemical bonds. See element. See inor- ganic compound, organic compound. CONCENTRATION 7 Amount of a chemical in a particular volume or weight of air, water, soil, or other medium. See parts per billion, parts per million. CONFERENCE OF PARTIES (COP) 10 The supreme body of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It comprises more than 170 nations that have ratified the Convention. Its first session was held in Berlin, Germany, in 1995, and it is expected to continue meeting on a yearly basis. The COP’s role is to promote and review the implementation of the Convention. It will periodically review existing com- mitments in light of the Convention’s objective, new sci- entific findings, and the effectiveness of national climate change programs. See United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. CONIFER 7 See coniferous trees. CONIFEROUS TREES 7 Cone-bearing trees, mostly evergreens, that have needle- shaped or scale-like leaves. They produce wood known commercially as softwood. See deciduous trees. CRITERIA POLLUTANT 2 A pollutant determined to be hazardous to human health and regulated under EPA’s National Ambient Air Quality Standards. The 1970 amendments to the Clean Air Act require EPA to describe the health and welfare impacts of a pollutant as the “criteria” for inclusion in the regulatory regime. In this report, emissions of the criteria pollutants CO, NO x , NMVOCs, and SO 2 are reported because they are thought to be precursors to greenhouse gas formation. CROP RESIDUE 2 Organic residue remaining after the harvesting and pro- cessing of a crop. CROP ROTATION 7 Planting the same field or areas of fields with different crops from year to year to reduce depletion of soil nutri- ents. Plants such as corn, tobacco, or cotton, which remove large amounts of nitrogen from the soil, are plant- ed one year. The next year legumes such as soybeans, which add nitrogen to the soil, are planted. CRUDE OIL 2 A mixture of hydrocarbons that exist in liquid phase in underground reservoirs and remain liquid at atmospheric pressure after passing through surface separating facili- ties. See petroleum. DECIDUOUS TREES 7 Trees such as oaks and maples that lose their leaves dur- ing part of the year. See coniferous trees. DECOMPOSITION 9 The breakdown of matter by bacteria and fungi. It changes the chemical composition and physical appear- ance of the materials. DEFORESTATION 1 Those practices or processes that result in the conver- sion of forested lands for non-forest uses. This is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect for two reasons: 1) the burning or decomposition of the wood releases carbon dioxide; and 2) trees that once removed carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in the process of photosynthesis are no longer present. DEGRADABLE 7 See biodegradable. DESERTIFICATION 1 The progressive destruction or degradation of existing vegetative cover to form a desert. This can occur due to overgrazing, deforestation, drought, and the burning of extensive areas. Once formed, deserts can only support a sparse range of vegetation. Climatic effects associated with this phenomenon include increased reflectivity of solar radiation, reduced atmospheric humidity, and greater atmospheric dust (aerosol) loading. DISTILLATE FUEL OIL 2 A general classification for the petroleum fractions pro- duced in conventional distillation operations. Included are products known as No. 1, No. 2, and No. 4 fuel oils and No. 1, No. 2, and No. 4 diesel fuels. Used primarily for space heating, on and off-highway diesel engine fuel (including railroad engine fuel and fuel for agricultural machinery), and electric power generation. ECONOMY 7 System of production, distribution, and consumption of economic goods. ECOSYSTEM 10 The complex system of plant, animal, fungal, and microor- ganism communities and their associated non-living envi- ronment interacting as an ecological unit. Ecosystems have no fixed boundaries; instead their parameters are set to the scientific, management, or policy question being examined. Depending upon the purpose of analy- sis, a single lake, a watershed, or an entire region could be considered an ecosystem. ELECTRONS 7 Tiny particles moving around outside the nucleus of an atom. Each electron has one unit of negative charge (-) and almost no mass. 5 EPA’s STATE AND LOCAL CLIMATE CHANGE PROGRAM ELEMENT 7 Chemicals such as hydrogen (H), iron (Fe), sodium (Na), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), or oxygen (O), whose distinctly different atoms serve as the basic building blocks of all matter. There are 92 naturally occurring elements. Another 15 have been made in laboratories. Two or more ele- ments combine to form compounds that make up most of the world’s matter. See compound. EMISSION INVENTORY A list of air pollutants emitted into a community’s, state’s, nation’s, or the Earth’s atmosphere in amounts per some unit time (e.g. day or year) by type of source. An emission inventory has both political and scientific applications. EMISSIONS COEFFICIENT/FACTOR 2 A unique value for scaling emissions to activity data in terms of a standard rate of emissions per unit of activity (e.g., grams of carbon dioxide emitted per barrel of fossil fuel consumed). EMISSIONS 2 Releases of gases to the atmosphere (e.g., the release of carbon dioxide during fuel combustion). Emissions can be either intended or unintended releases. See fugitive emissions. ENERGY CONSERVATION 7 Reduction or elimination of unnecessary energy use and waste. See energy-efficiency. ENERGY INTENSITY 5 Ratio between the consumption of energy to a given quantity of output; usually refers to the amount of pri- mary or final energy consumed per unit of gross domestic product. ENERGY QUALITY 7 Ability of a form of energy to do useful work. High-temper- ature heat and the chemical energy in fossil fuels and nuclear fuels are concentrated high quality energy. Low- quality energy such as low-temperature heat is dispersed or diluted and cannot do much useful work. ENERGY 3 The capacity for doing work as measured by the capabil- ity of doing work (potential energy) or the conversion of this capability to motion (kinetic energy). Energy has sev- eral forms, some of which are easily convertible and can be changed to another form useful for work. Most of the world’s convertible energy comes from fossil fuels that are burned to produce heat that is then used as a transfer medium to mechanical or other means in order to accomplish tasks. In the United States, electrical energy is often measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh), while heat ener- gy is often measured in British thermal units (Btu). ENERGY-EFFICIENCY 6&8 The ratio of the useful output of services from an article of industrial equipment to the energy use by such an article; for example, vehicle miles traveled per gallon of fuel (mpg). ENHANCED GREENHOUSE EFFECT 1 The concept that the natural greenhouse effect has been enhanced by anthropogenic emissions of green- house gases. Increased concentrations of carbon diox- ide, methane, and nitrous oxide, CFCs, HFCs, PFCs, SF 6 , NF 3 , and other photochemically important gases caused by human activities such as fossil fuel consumption, trap more infra-red radiation, thereby exerting a warming influ- ence on the climate. See greenhouse gas, anthro- pogenic, greenhouse effect, climate. ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY 7 Removal of some of the heavy oil left in an oil well after primary and secondary recovery. See primary oil recov- ery, secondary oil recovery. ENTERIC FERMENTATION 2 A digestive process by which carbohydrates are broken down by microorganisms into simple molecules for absorption into the bloodstream of an animal. ENVIRONMENT 7 All external conditions that affect an organism or other specified system during its lifetime. ETHANOL (C 2 H 5 OH) 8 Otherwise known as ethyl alcohol, alcohol, or grain spirit. A clear, colorless, flammable oxygenated hydrocarbon with a boiling point of 78.5 degrees Celsius in the anhy- drous state. In transportation, ethanol is used as a vehicle fuel by itself (E100), blended with gasoline (E85), or as a gasoline octane enhancer and oxygenate (10 percent concentration). EVAPOTRANSPIRATION 10 The loss of water from the soil by evaporation and by transpiration from the plants growing in the soil, which rises with air temperature. EXPONENTIAL GROWTH 7 Growth in which some quantity, such as population size, increases by a constant percentage of the whole during each year or other time period; when the increase in quantity over time is plotted, this type of growth yields a curve shaped like the letter J. FEEDLOT 7 Confined outdoor or indoor space used to raise hundreds to thousands of domesticated livestock. See rangeland. FERTILIZATION, CARBON DIOXIDE 1 An expression (sometimes reduced to “fertilization”) used to denote increased plant growth due to a higher car- bon dioxide concentration. FERTILIZER 7 Substance that adds inorganic or organic plant nutrients to soil and improves its ability to grow crops, trees, or other vegetation. See organic fertilizer. FLARING 9 The burning of waste gases through a flare stack or other device before releasing them to the air. FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION (FBC) 7 Process for burning coal more efficiently, cleanly, and cheaply. A stream of hot air is used to suspend a mixture of powdered coal and limestone during combustion. About 90 to 98 percent of the sulfur dioxide produced during combustion is removed by reaction with limestone to produce solid calcium sulfate. 6 EPA’s STATE AND LOCAL CLIMATE CHANGE PROGRAM FLUOROCARBONS 1 Carbon-fluorine compounds that often contain other ele- ments such as hydrogen, chlorine, or bromine. Common fluorocarbons include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). See chlorofluorocar- bons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons, per- fluorocarbons. FORCING MECHANISM 1 A process that alters the energy balance of the climate system (i.e., changes the relative balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing infrared radiation from Earth). Such mechanisms include changes in solar irradiance, volcanic eruptions, and enhancement of the natural greenhouse effect by emission of carbon dioxide. FOREST 7 Terrestrial ecosystem (biome) with enough average annu- al precipitation (at least 76 centimeters or 30 inches) to support growth of various species of trees and smaller forms of vegetation. FOSSIL FUEL A general term for buried combustible geologic deposits of organic materials, formed from decayed plants and animals that have been converted to crude oil, coal, nat- ural gas, or heavy oils by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth’s crust over hundreds of millions of years. See coal, petroleum, crude oil, natural gas. FOSSIL FUEL COMBUSTION 1 Burning of coal, oil (including gasoline), or natural gas. The burning needed to generate energy release carbon diox- ide by-products that can include unburned hydrocar- bons, methane, and carbon monoxide. Carbon monox- ide, methane, and many of the unburned hydrocarbons slowly oxidize into carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Common sources of fossil fuel combustion include cars and electric utilities. FREON See chlorofluorocarbon. FUGITIVE EMISSIONS 2 Unintended gas leaks from the processing, transmission, and/or transportation of fossil fuels, CFCs from refrigera- tion leaks, SF 6 from electrical power distributor, etc. GASOHOL 7 Vehicle fuel consisting of a mixture of gasoline and ethyl or methyl alcohol; typically 10 to 23 percent ethanol by volume. GENERAL AVIATION 8 That portion of civil aviation, which encompasses all facets of aviation except air carriers. It includes any air taxis, commuter air carriers, and air travel clubs, which do not hold Certificates of Public Convenience and Necessity. See air carriers. GENERAL CIRCULATION MODEL (GCM) 1 A global, three-dimensional computer model of the cli- mate system which can be used to simulate human- induced climate change. GCMs are highly complex and they represent the effects of such factors as reflective and absorptive properties of atmospheric water vapor, greenhouse gas concentrations, clouds, annual and daily solar heating, ocean temperatures and ice boundaries. The most recent GCMs include global representations of the atmosphere, oceans, and land surface. GEOSPHERE 1 The soils, sediments, and rock layers of the Earth’s crust, both continental and beneath the ocean floors. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 7 Heat transferred from the Earth’s molten core to under- ground deposits of dry steam (steam with no water droplets), wet steam (a mixture of steam and water droplets), hot water, or rocks lying fairly close to the Earth’s surface. GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL (GWP) 1 The index used to translate the level of emissions of vari- ous gases into a common measure in order to compare the relative radiative forcing of different gases without directly calculating the changes in atmospheric concen- trations. GWPs are calculated as the ratio of the radiative forcing that would result from the emissions of one kilo- gram of a greenhouse gas to that from the emission of one kilogram of carbon dioxide over a period of time (usually 100 years). Gases involved in complex atmospher- ic chemical processes have not been assigned GWPs. See lifetime. GLOBAL WARMING 10 The progressive gradual rise of the Earth’s surface temper- ature thought to be caused by the greenhouse effect and responsible for changes in global climate patterns. See enhanced greenhouse effect, greenhouse effect, cli- mate change. GRASSLAND 7 Terrestrial ecosystem (biome) found in regions where moderate annual average precipitation (25 to 76 cen- timeters or 10 to 30 inches) is enough to support the growth of grass and small plants but not enough to sup- port large stands of trees. GREENHOUSE EFFECT 7 Trapping and build-up of heat in the atmosphere (tro- posphere) near the Earth’s surface. Some of the heat flowing back toward space from the Earth’s surface is absorbed by water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, and several other gases in the atmosphere and then reradiat- ed back toward the Earth’s surface. If the atmospheric concentrations of these greenhouse gases rise, the aver- age temperature of the lower atmosphere will gradually increase. See enhanced greenhouse effect, climate change, global warming. GREENHOUSE GAS (GHG) 1 Any gas that absorbs infrared radiation in the atmos- phere. Greenhouse gases include, but are not limited to, water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ), nitrous oxide (N 2 O), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), ozone (O 3 ), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6 ). See carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrochlorofluorocarbon, ozone, hydrofluorocarbon, perfluorocarbon, sulfur hexafluoride. HALOCARBONS 1 Chemicals consisting of carbon, sometimes hydrogen, and either chlorine, fluorine, bromine or iodine. 7 EPA’s STATE AND LOCAL CLIMATE CHANGE PROGRAM HALONS 1 Compounds, also known as bromofluorocarbons, that contain bromine, fluorine, and carbon. They are generally used as fire extinguishing agents and cause ozone deple- tion. Bromine is many times more effective at destroying stratospheric ozone than chlorine. See ozone depleting substance. HEAT CONTENT 5 The amount of heat per unit mass released upon com- plete combustion. HEAT 7 Form of kinetic energy that flows from one body to another when there is a temperature difference between the two bodies. Heat always flows sponta- neously from a hot sample of matter to a colder sample of matter. This is one way to state the second law of ther- modynamics. See temperature. HIGHER HEATING VALUE 5 Quantity of heat liberated by the complete combustion of a unit volume or weight of a fuel assuming that the produced water vapor is completely condensed and the heat is recovered; also known as gross calorific value. See lower heating value. HISTOSOL 9 Wet organic soils, such as peats and mucks. HYDROCARBONS 1 Substances containing only hydrogen and carbon. Fossil fuels are made up of hydrocarbons. Some hydrocarbon compounds are major air pollutants. HYDROCHLOROFLUOROCARBONS (HCFCs) 1 Compounds containing hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine, and carbon atoms. Although ozone depleting sub- stances, they are less potent at destroying stratos- pheric ozone than chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). They have been introduced as temporary replacements for CFCs and are also greenhouse gases. See ozone depleting substance. HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT 1 Structure in which the energy of fading or flowing water spins a turbine generator to produce electricity. HYDROFLUOROCARBONS (HFCS) 7 Compounds containing only hydrogen, fluorine, and car- bon atoms. They were introduced as alternatives to ozone depleting substances in serving many industrial, commercial, and personal needs. HFCs are emitted as by-products of industrial processes and are also used in manufacturing. They do not significantly deplete the stratospheric ozone layer, but they are powerful green- house gases with global warming potentials ranging from 140 (HFC-152a) to 11,700 (HFC-23). HYDROLOGIC CYCLE The process of evaporation, vertical and horizontal trans- port of vapor, condensation, precipitation, and the flow of water from continents to oceans. It is a major factor in determining climate through its influence on surface vegetation, the clouds, snow and ice, and soil moisture. The hydrologic cycle is responsible for 25 to 30 percent of the mid-latitudes’ heat transport from the equatorial to polar regions. HYDROPOWER 7 Electrical energy produced by falling or flowing water. See hydroelectric power plant. HYDROSPHERE 7 All the Earth’s liquid water (oceans, smaller bodies of fresh water, and underground aquifers), frozen water (polar ice caps, floating ice, and frozen upper layer of soil known as permafrost), and small amounts of water vapor in the atmosphere. INDUSTRIAL SECTOR 8 Construction, manufacturing, agricultural and mining establishments. INFRARED RADIATION 1 The heat energy that is emitted from all solids, liquids, and gases. In the context of the greenhouse issue, the term refers to the heat energy emitted by the Earth’s surface and its atmosphere. Greenhouse gases strongly absorb this radiation in the Earth’s atmosphere, and re-radiate some of it back towards the surface, creating the green- house effect. INORGANIC COMPOUND 7 Combination of two or more elements other than those used to form organic compounds. See organic compound. INORGANIC FERTILIZER 7 See synthetic fertilizer. INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE (IPCC) 1 The IPCC was established jointly by the United Nations Environment Programme and the World Meteorological Organization in 1988. The purpose of the IPCC is to assess information in the scientific and technical literature relat- ed to all significant components of the issue of climate change. The IPCC draws upon hundreds of the world’s expert scientists as authors and thousands as expert reviewers. Leading experts on climate change and envi- ronmental, social, and economic sciences from some 60 nations have helped the IPCC to prepare periodic assess- ments of the scientific underpinnings for understanding global climate change and its consequences. With its capacity for reporting on climate change, its conse- quences, and the viability of adaptation and mitigation measures, the IPCC is also looked to as the official adviso- ry body to the world’s governments on the state of the science of the climate change issue. For example, the IPCC organized the development of internationally accepted methods for conducting national greenhouse gas emission inventories. IRREVERSIBILITIES 10 Changes that, once set in motion, cannot be reversed, at least on human time scales. JET FUEL 8 Includes both naphtha-type and kerosene-type fuels meeting standards for use in aircraft turbine engines. Although most jet fuel is used in aircraft, some is used for other purposes such as generating electricity. JOULE 1 The energy required to push with a force of one Newton for one meter. 8 EPA’s STATE AND LOCAL CLIMATE CHANGE PROGRAM KEROGEN 7 Solid, waxy mixture of hydrocarbons found in oil shale, with a fine grained sedimentary rock. When the rock is heated to high temperatures, the kerogen is vaporized. The vapor is condensed and then sent to a refinery to produce gasoline, heating oil, and other products. See oil shale, shale oil. KEROSENE 2 A petroleum distillate that has a maximum distillation tem- perature of 401 degrees Fahrenheit at the 10 percent recovery point, a final boiling point of 572 degrees Fahrenheit, and a minimum flash point of 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Used in space heaters, cookstoves, and water heaters, and suitable for use as an illuminant when burned in wick lamps. KYOTO PROTOCOL 10 An international agreement struck by 159 nations attend- ing the Third Conference of Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (held in December of 1997 in Kyoto, Japan) to reduce world- wide emissions of greenhouse gases. If ratified and put into force, individual countries have committed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by a specified amount. See Framework Convention on Climate Change, Conference of Parties. LANDFILL 7 Land waste disposal site in which waste is generally spread in thin layers, compacted, and covered with a fresh layer of soil each day. LIFETIME (ATMOSPHERIC) 1 The lifetime of a greenhouse gas refers to the approxi- mate amount of time it would take for the anthropogenic increment to an atmospheric pollutant concentration to return to its natural level (assuming emissions cease) as a result of either being converted to another chemical compound or being taken out of the atmosphere via a sink. This time depends on the pollutant’s sources and sinks as well as its reactivity. The lifetime of a pollutant is often considered in conjunction with the mixing of pollu- tants in the atmosphere; a long lifetime will allow the pol- lutant to mix throughout the atmosphere. Average life- times can vary from about a week (e.g., sulfate aerosols) to more than a century (e.g., CFCs, carbon dioxide). See residence time. LIGHT-DUTY VEHICLES 8 Automobiles and light trucks combined. LIGNITE 2 A brownish-black coal of low rank with high inherent moisture and volatile matter content, used almost exclu- sively for electric power generation. Also referred to as brown coal. LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS (LNG) 7 Natural gas converted to liquid form by cooling to a very low temperature. LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG) 2 Ethane, ethylene, propane, propylene, normal butane, butylene, and isobutane produced at refineries or natural gas processing plants, including plants that fractionate new natural gas plant liquids. LITTER 9 Undecomposed plant residues on the soil surface. See decomposition. LONGWAVE RADIATION 9 The radiation emitted in the spectral wavelength greater than 4 micrometers corresponding to the radiation emit- ted from the Earth and atmosphere. It is sometimes referred to as terrestrial radiation or infrared radiation, although somewhat imprecisely. See infrared radiation. LOW EMISSION VEHICLE (LEV) 8 A vehicle meeting the low-emission vehicle standards. LOWER HEATING VALUE 5 Quantity of heat liberated by the complete combustion of a unit volume or weight of a fuel assuming that the produced water remains as a vapor and the heat of the vapor is not recovered; also known as net calorific value. See higher heating value. LUBRICANT 2 A substance used to reduce friction between bearing sur- faces or as a process material, either incorporated into other materials used as aids in manufacturing processes, or as carriers of other materials. Petroleum lubricants may be produced either from distillates or residues. Other sub- stances may be added to impart or improve useful prop- erties. Does not include by-products of lubricating oil from solvent extraction or tars derived from de-asphalting. Lubricants include all grades of lubricating oils from spin- dle oil to cylinder oil and those used in greases. Lubricant categories are paraffinic and naphthenic. MANURE 7 Dung and urine of animals that can be used as a form of organic fertilizer. MASS BALANCE 9 The application of the principle of the conservation of matter. MAUNA LOA 9 An intermittently active volcano 13,680 feet (4,170 meters) high in Hawaii. METHANE (CH 4 ) 1 A hydrocarbon that is a greenhouse gas with a global warming potential most recently estimated at 21. Methane is produced through anaerobic (without oxy- gen) decomposition of waste in landfills, animal diges- tion, decomposition of animal wastes, production and distribution of natural gas and petroleum, coal produc- tion, and incomplete fossil fuel combustion. The atmos- pheric concentration of methane has been shown to be increasing at a rate of about 0.6 percent per year and the concentration of about 1.7 per million by volume (ppmv) is more than twice its pre-industrial value. However, the rate of increase of methane in the atmos- phere may be stabilizing. METHANOL (CH 3 OH) 8 A colorless, poisonous liquid with essentially no odor and little taste. It is the simplest alcohol with a boiling point of 64.7 degrees Celsius. In transportation, methanol is used as a vehicle fuel by itself (M100), or blended with gasoline (M85). 9 EPA’s STATE AND LOCAL CLIMATE CHANGE PROGRAM METHANOTROPHIC 7 Having the biological capacity to oxidize methane to CO 2 and water by metabolism under aerobic conditions. See aerobic. METHYL BROMIDE (CH 3 Br) 11 An effective pesticide; used to fumigate soil and many agricultural products. Because it contains bromine, it depletes stratospheric ozone when released to the atmosphere. See ozone depleting substance. METRIC TON 1 Common international measurement for the quantity of greenhouse gas emissions. A metric ton is equal to 1000 kilograms, 2204.6 pounds, or 1.1023 short tons. MINERAL 7 Any naturally occurring inorganic substance found in the Earth’s crust as a crystalline solid. MODEL YEAR 8 Refers to the “sales” model year; for example, vehicles sold during the period from October 1 to the next September 31 is considered one model year. MOLECULE 7 Chemical combination of two or more atoms of the same chemical element (such as O 2 ) or different chemi- cal elements (such as H 2 O). MONTREAL PROTOCOL ON SUBSTANCES THAT DEPLETE THE OZONE LAYER 11 The Montreal Protocol and its amendments control the phaseout of ozone depleting substances production and use. Under the Protocol, several international organiza- tions report on the science of ozone depletion, imple- ment projects to help move away from ozone depleting substances, and provide a forum for policy discussions. In the United States, the Protocol is implemented under the rubric of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. See ozone depleting substance, ozone layer. MOTOR GASOLINE 2 A complex mixture of relatively volatile hydrocarbons, with or without small quantities of additives, obtained by blending appropriate refinery streams to form a fuel suit- able for use in spark-ignition engines. Motor gasoline includes both leaded and unleaded grades of finished gasoline, blending components, and gasohol. MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW) 2 Residential solid waste and some non-hazardous commer- cial, institutional, and industrial wastes. This material is gen- erally sent to municipal landfills for disposal. See landfill. NAPHTHA 2 A generic term applied to a petroleum fraction with an approximate boiling range between 122 and 400 degrees Fahrenheit. NATURAL GAS 7 Underground deposits of gases consisting of 50 to 90 per- cent methane (CH 4 ) and small amounts of heavier gaseous hydrocarbon compounds such as propane (C 3 H 4 ) and butane (C 4 H 10 ). NATURAL GAS LIQUIDS (NGLs) 2 Those hydrocarbons in natural gas that are separated as liquids from the gas. Includes natural gas plant liquids and lease condensate. NITROGEN CYCLE 7 Cyclic movement of nitrogen in different chemical forms from the environment, to organisms, and then back to the environment. NITROGEN FIXATION 7 Conversion of atmospheric nitrogen gas into forms useful to plants and other organisms by lightning, bacteria, and blue-green algae; it is part of the nitrogen cycle. NITROGEN OXIDES (NO x ) 1 Gases consisting of one molecule of nitrogen and varying numbers of oxygen molecules. Nitrogen oxides are pro- duced, for example, by the combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles and electric power plants. In the atmosphere, nitrogen oxides can contribute to formation of photo- chemical ozone (smog), impair visibility, and have health consequences; they are considered pollutants. NITROUS OXIDE (N 2 O) 1 A powerful greenhouse gas with a global warming poten- tial most recently evaluated at 310. Major sources of nitrous oxide include soil cultivation practices, especially the use of commercial and organic fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production, and biomass burning. NONBIODEGRADABLE 7 Substance that cannot be broken down in the environ- ment by natural processes. See biodegradable. NONLINEARITIES 10 Occur when changes in one variable cause a more than proportionate impact on another variable. NON-METHANE VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (NMVOCs) 2 Organic compounds, other than methane, that partici- pate in atmospheric photochemical reactions. NON-POINT SOURCE 7 Large land area such as crop fields and urban areas that discharge pollutant into surface and underground water over a large area. See point source. NUCLEAR ELECTRIC POWER 3 Electricity generated by an electric power plant whose turbines are driven by steam generated in a reactor by heat from the fissioning of nuclear fuel. NUCLEAR ENERGY 7 Energy released when atomic nuclei undergo a nuclear reaction such as the spontaneous emission of radioactivi- ty, nuclear fission, or nuclear fusion. OIL SHALE 7 Underground formation of a fine-grained sedimentary rock containing varying amounts of kerogen, a solid, waxy mixture of hydrocarbon compounds. Heating the rock to high temperatures converts the kerogen to a vapor, which can be condensed to form a slow flowing heavy oil called shale oil. See kerogen, shale oil. OIL See crude oil, petroleum. ORE 7 Mineral deposit containing a high enough concentration of at least one metallic element to permit the metal to be extracted and sold at a profit. 10 EPA’s STATE AND LOCAL CLIMATE CHANGE PROGRAM ORGANIC COMPOUND 7 Molecule that contains atoms of the element carbon, usu- ally combined with itself and with atoms of one or more other element such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, chlorine, or fluorine. See inorganic compound. ORGANIC FERTILIZER 7 Organic material such as manure or compost, applied to cropland as a source of plant nutrients. OXIDIZE 2 To chemically transform a substance by combining it with oxygen. OXYGEN CYCLE 7 Cyclic movement of oxygen in different chemical forms from the environment, to organisms, and then back to the environment. OZONE 6 A colorless gas with a pungent odor, having the molecu- lar form of O 3 , found in two layers of the atmosphere, the stratosphere and the troposphere. Ozone is a form of oxy- gen found naturally in the stratosphere that provides a protective layer shielding the Earth from ultraviolet radia- tion’s harmful health effects on humans and the environ- ment. In the troposphere, ozone is a chemical oxidant and major component of photochemical smog. Ozone can seriously affect the human respiratory system. OZONE DEPLETING SUBSTANCE (ODS) 11 A family of man-made compounds that includes, but is not limited to, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), bromofluoro- carbons (halons), methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachlo- ride, methyl bromide, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). These compounds have been shown to deplete stratospheric ozone, and therefore are typically referred to as ODSs. OZONE LAYER 7 Layer of gaseous ozone (O 3 ) in the stratosphere that pro- tects life on Earth by filtering out harmful ultraviolet radia- tion from the sun. See stratosphere, ultraviolet radiation. OZONE PRECURSORS 2 Chemical compounds, such as carbon monoxide, methane, non-methane hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides, which in the presence of solar radiation react with other chemical compounds to form ozone, mainly in the troposphere. See troposphere PARTICULATE MATTER (PM) 7 Solid particles or liquid droplets suspended or carried in the air. PARTICULATES See particulate matter. PARTS PER BILLION (ppb) 7 Number of parts of a chemical found in one billion parts of a particular gas, liquid, or solid mixture. See concentration. PARTS PER MILLION (ppm) 7 Number of parts of a chemical found in one million parts of a particular gas, liquid, or solid. See concentration. PENTANES PLUS 2 A mixture of hydrocarbons, mostly pentanes and heavier fractions, extracted from natural gas. PERFLUOROCARBONS (PFCs) 1 A group of human-made chemicals composed of carbon and fluorine only. These chemicals (predominantly CF 4 and C 2 F 6 ) were introduced as alternatives, along with hydrofluorocarbons, to the ozone-depleting substances. In addition, PFCs are emitted as by-products of industrial processes and are also used in manufacturing. PFCs do not harm the stratospheric ozone layer, but they are pow- erful greenhouse gases: CF 4 has a global warming poten- tial (GWP) of 6,500 and C 2 F 6 has a GWP of 9,200. PETROCHEMICAL FEEDSTOCK 2 Feedstock derived from petroleum, used principally for the manufacture of chemicals, synthetic rubber, and a variety of plastics. The categories reported are naphtha (endpoint less than 401 degrees Fahrenheit) and other oils (endpoint equal to or greater than 401 degrees Fahrenheit). PETROCHEMICALS 7 Chemicals obtained by refining (i.e., distilling) crude oil. They are used as raw materials in the manufacture of most industrial chemicals, fertilizers, pesticides, plastics, synthetic fibers, paints, medicines, and many other prod- ucts. See crude oil. PETROLEUM COKE 2 A residue that is the final product of the condensation process in cracking. PETROLEUM 2 A generic term applied to oil and oil products in all forms, such as crude oil, lease condensate, unfinished oils, petro- leum products, natural gas plant liquids, and non-hydro- carbon compounds blended into finished petroleum products. See crude oil. PHOTOSYNTHESIS 7 Complex process that takes place in living green plant cells. Radiant energy from the sun is used to combine carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and water (H 2 O) to produce oxy- gen (O 2 ) and simple nutrient molecules, such as glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ). PHOTOVOLTAIC AND SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY 2 Energy radiated by the sun as electromagnetic waves (electromagnetic radiation) that is converted into elec- tricity by means of solar (i.e., photovoltaic) cells or use- able heat by concentrating (i.e., focusing) collectors. POINT SOURCE 7 A single identifiable source that discharges pollutants into the environment. Examples are smokestack, sewer, ditch, or pipe. See non-point source. POLLUTION 7 A change in the physical, chemical, or biological charac- teristics of the air, water, or soil that can affect the health, survival, or activities of humans in an unwanted way. Some expand the term to include harmful effects on all forms of life. POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC) 2 A polymer of vinyl chloride. It is tasteless, odorless and insoluble in most organic solvents. A member of the family vinyl resin, used in soft flexible films for food packaging and in molded rigid products, such as pipes, fibers, uphol- stery, and bristles. 11 EPA’s STATE AND LOCAL CLIMATE CHANGE PROGRAM POPULATION 7 Group of individual organisms of the same species living within a particular area. PRESCRIBED BURNING 7 Deliberate setting and careful control of surface fires in forests to help prevent more destructive fires and to kill off unwanted plants that compete with commercial species for plant nutrients; may also be used on grasslands. PRIMARY OIL RECOVERY 7 Pumping out the crude oil that flows by gravity into the bottom of an oil well. See enhanced oil recovery, sec- ondary oil recovery. QUAD 8 Quad stands for quadrillion, which is, 10 15 . RADIATION 1 Energy emitted in the form of electromagnetic waves. Radiation has differing characteristics depending upon the wavelength. Because the radiation from the Sun is relatively energetic, it has a short wavelength (e.g., ultra- violet, visible, and near infrared) while energy re-radiated from the Earth’s surface and the atmosphere has a longer wavelength (e.g., infrared radiation) because the Earth is cooler than the Sun. See ultraviolet radiation, infrared radiation, solar radiation, longwave radiation, ter- restrial radiation. RADIATIVE FORCING 1 A change in the balance between incoming solar radia- tion and outgoing infrared (i.e., thermal) radiation. Without any radiative forcing, solar radiation coming to the Earth would continue to be approximately equal to the infrared radiation emitted from the Earth. The addition of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere traps an increased fraction of the infrared radiation, reradiating it back toward the surface of the Earth and thereby cre- ates a warming influence. RAIL 8 Includes “heavy” and “light” transit rail. Heavy transit rail is characterized by exclusive rights-of-way, multi- car trains, high speed rapid acceleration, sophisticat- ed signaling, and high platform loading. Also known as subway, elevated railway, or metropolitan railway (metro). Light transit rail may be on exclusive or shared rights of way, high or low platform, multi-car trains or single cars, automated or manually operated. In generic usage, light rail includes streetcars, trolley cars, and tramways. RANGELAND 7 Land, mostly grasslands, whose plants can provide food (i.e., forage) for grazing or browsing animals. See feedlot. RECYCLING 7 Collecting and reprocessing a resource so it can be used again. An example is collecting aluminum cans, melting them down, and using the aluminum to make new cans or other aluminum products. REFORESTATION 2 Replanting of forests on lands that have recently been harvested. RENEWABLE ENERGY 2 Energy obtained from sources that are essentially inex- haustible, unlike, for example, fossil fuels, of which there is a finite supply. Renewable sources of energy include wood, waste, geothermal, wind, photovoltaic, and solar thermal energy. See hydropower, photovoltaic. RESIDENCE TIME 1 Average time spent in a reservoir by an individual atom or molecule. Also, this term is used to define the age of a molecule when it leaves the reservoir. With respect to greenhouse gases, residence time usually refers to how long a particular molecule remains in the atmosphere. See lifetime. RESIDENTIAL SECTOR 3 An area or portion consisting only of housing units. RESIDUAL FUEL OIL 2 The heavier oils that remain after the distillate fuel oils and lighter hydrocarbons are distilled away in refinery opera- tions and that conform to ASTM Specifications D396 and D975. Included are No. 5, a residual fuel oil of medium vis- cosity; Navy Special, for use in steam-powered vessels in government service and in shore power plants; and No. 6, which includes Bunker C fuel oil and is used for commer- cial and industrial heating, electricity generation, and to power ships. Imports of residual fuel oil include imported crude oil burned as fuel. SECONDARY OIL RECOVERY 7 Injection of water into an oil well after primary oil recov- ery to force out some of the remaining thicker crude oil. See enhanced oil recovery, primary oil recovery. SECTOR Division, most commonly used to denote type of energy consumer (e.g., residential) or according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the type of greenhouse gas emitter (e.g., industrial process). See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. SEPTIC TANK 7 Underground tank for treatment of wastewater from a home in rural and suburban areas. Bacteria in the tank decompose organic wastes and the sludge settles to the bottom of the tank. The effluent flows out of the tank into the ground through a field of drainpipes. SEWAGE TREATMENT (PRIMARY) 7 Mechanical treatment of sewage in which large solids are filtered out by screens and suspended solids settle out as sludge in a sedimentation tank. SHALE OIL 7 Slow-flowing, dark brown, heavy oil obtained when kero- gen in oil shale is vaporized at high temperatures and then condensed. Shale oil can be refined to yield gaso- line, heating oil, and other petroleum products. See kero- gen, oil shale. SHORT TON 1 Common measurement for a ton in the United States. A short ton is equal to 2,000 lbs. or 0.907 metric tons. SINK 1 A reservoir that uptakes a pollutant from another part of its cycle. Soil and trees tend to act as natural sinks for carbon. 12 EPA’s STATE AND LOCAL CLIMATE CHANGE PROGRAM SLUDGE 7 Gooey solid mixture of bacteria and virus laden organic matter, toxic metals, synthetic organic chemicals, and solid chemicals removed from wastewater at a sewage treatment plant. SOIL 7 Complex mixture of inorganic minerals (i.e., mostly clay, silt, and sand), decaying organic matter, water, air, and liv- ing organisms. SOIL CARBON 9 A major component of the terrestrial biosphere pool in the carbon cycle. The amount of carbon in the soil is a function of the historical vegetative cover and productivi- ty, which in turn is dependent in part upon climatic vari- ables. SOLAR ENERGY 7 Direct radiant energy from the sun. It also includes indi- rect forms of energy such as wind, falling or flowing water (hydropower), ocean thermal gradients, and biomass, which are produced when direct solar energy interact with the Earth. See solar radiation. SOLAR RADIATION 1 Energy from the Sun. Also referred to as short-wave radia- tion. Of importance to the climate system, solar radiation includes ultra-violet radiation, visible radiation, and infrared radiation. SOURCE 4 Any process or activity that releases a greenhouse gas, an aerosol, or a precursor of a greenhouse gas into the atmosphere. SPECIAL NAPHTHA 2 All finished products within the naphtha boiling range that are used as paint thinners, cleaners, or solvents. Those products are refined to a specified flash point. STILL GAS 2 Any form or mixture of gases produced in refineries by dis- tillation, cracking, reforming, and other processes. Principal constituents are methane, ethane, ethylene, nor- mal butane, butylene, propane, propylene, etc. Used as a refinery fuel and as a petrochemical feedstock. STRATOSPHERE 7 Second layer of the atmosphere, extending from about 19 to 48 kilometers (12 to 30 miles) above the Earth’s sur- face. It contains small amounts of gaseous ozone (O 3 ), which filters out about 99 percent of the incoming harm- ful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Most commercial airline flights operate at a cruising altitude in the lower stratos- phere. See ozone layer, ultraviolet radiation. STRATOSPHERIC OZONE See ozone layer. STRIP MINING 7 Cutting deep trenches to remove minerals such as coal and phosphate found near the Earth’s surface in flat or rolling terrain. See surface mining. SUBBITUMINOUS COAL 2 A dull, black coal of rank intermediate between lignite and bituminous coal. SULFUR CYCLE 7 Cyclic movement of sulfur in different chemical forms from the environment, to organisms, and then back to the environment. SULFUR DIOXIDE (SO 2 ) 1 A compound composed of one sulfur and two oxygen mol- ecules. Sulfur dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through natural and anthropogenic processes is changed in a com- plex series of chemical reactions in the atmosphere to sul- fate aerosols. These aerosols are believed to result in nega- tive radiative forcing (i.e., tending to cool the Earth’s sur- face) and do result in acid deposition (e.g., acid rain). See aerosols, radiative forcing, acid deposition, acid rain. SULFUR HEXAFLUORIDE (SF 6 ) 1 A colorless gas soluble in alcohol and ether, slightly solu- ble in water. A very powerful greenhouse gas used pri- marily in electrical transmission and distribution systems and as a dielectric in electronics. The global warming potential of SF 6 is 23,900. See global warming potential. SURFACE MINING 7 Removal of soil, sub-soil, and other strata and then extracting a mineral deposit found fairly close to the Earth’s surface. See strip mining. SYNTHETIC FERTILIZER 7 Commercially prepared mixtures of plant nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates, and potassium applied to the soil to restore fertility and increase crop yields. See organic fertilizer. SYNTHETIC NATURAL GAS (SNG) 3 A manufactured product chemically similar in most respects to natural gas, resulting from the conversion or reforming of petroleum hydrocarbons. It may easily be substituted for, or interchanged with, pipeline quality nat- ural gas. TAILINGS 7 Rock and other waste materials removed as impurities when minerals are mined and mineral deposits are processed. These materials are usually dumped on the ground or into ponds. TAR SAND 7 Swamp-like deposit of a mixture of fine clay, sand, water, and variable amounts of tar-like heavy oil known as bitu- men. Bitumen can be extracted from tar sand by heat- ing. It can then be purified and upgraded to synthetic crude oil. See bitumen. TEMPERATURE 7 Measure of the average speed of motion of the atoms or molecules in a substance or combination of substances at a given moment. See heat. TERRESTRIAL 7 Pertaining to land. TERRESTRIAL RADIATION 9 The total infrared radiation emitted by the Earth and its atmosphere in the temperature range of approximately 200 to 300 Kelvin. Terrestrial radiation provides a major part of the potential energy changes necessary to drive the atmospheric wind system and is responsible for main- taining the surface air temperature within limits of livability. 13 EPA’s STATE AND LOCAL CLIMATE CHANGE PROGRAM TRACE GAS 1 Any one of the less common gases found in the Earth’s atmosphere. Nitrogen, oxygen, and argon make up more than 99 percent of the Earth’s atmosphere. Other gases, such as carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, oxides of nitrogen, ozone, and ammonia, are considered trace gases. Although relatively unimportant in terms of their absolute volume, they have significant effects on the Earth’s weather and climate. TRANSPORTATION SECTOR 8 Consists of private and public passenger and freight transportation, as well as government transportation, including military operations. TROPOSPHERE 1&7 The lowest layer of the atmosphere and contains about 95 percent of the mass of air in the Earth’s atmosphere. The troposphere extends from the Earth’s surface up to about 10 to 15 kilometers. All weather processes take place in the troposphere. Ozone that is formed in the tro- posphere plays a significant role in both the greenhouse gas effect and urban smog. See ozone precursor, stratos- phere, atmosphere. TROPOSPHERIC OZONE PRECURSOR See ozone precursor. TROPOSPHERIC OZONE 1 See ozone. ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION (UV) 11 A portion of the electromagnetic spectrum with wave- lengths shorter than visible light. The sun produces UV, which is commonly split into three bands of decreasing wavelength. Shorter wavelength radiation has a greater potential to cause biological damage on living organisms. The longer wavelength ultraviolet band, UVA, is not absorbed by ozone in the atmosphere. UVB is mostly absorbed by ozone, although some reaches the Earth. The shortest wavelength band, UVC, is completely absorbed by ozone and normal oxygen in the atmosphere. UNFINISHED OILS 3 All oils requiring further refinery processing, except those requiring only mechanical blending. Includes naphtha and lighter oils, kerosene and light gas oils, heavy gas oils, and residuum. UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE (UNFCCC) 1 The international treaty unveiled at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in June, 1992. The UNFCCC commits signatory countries to stabilize anthropogenic (i.e., human-induced) green- house gas emissions to “levels that would prevent danger- ous anthropogenic interference with the climate system”. The UNFCCC also requires that all signatory parties devel- op and update national inventories of anthropogenic emissions of all greenhouse gases not otherwise con- trolled by the Montreal Protocol. Out of 155 countries that have ratified this accord, the United States was the first industrialized nation to do so. VEHICLE MILES TRAVELED (VMT) 8 One vehicle traveling the distance of one mile. Thus, total vehicle miles is the total mileage traveled by all vehicles. VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCs) 6 Organic compounds that evaporate readily into the atmosphere at normal temperatures. VOCs contribute significantly to photochemical smog production and certain health problems. See non-methane volatile organic compounds. WASTEWATER 2 Water that has been used and contains dissolved or sus- pended waste materials. See sewage treatment. WATER VAPOR 1 The most abundant greenhouse gas; it is the water present in the atmosphere in gaseous form. Water vapor is an important part of the natural greenhouse effect. While humans are not significantly increasing its concentration, it contributes to the enhanced greenhouse effect because the warming influence of greenhouse gases leads to a posi- tive water vapor feedback. In addition to its role as a natur- al greenhouse gas, water vapor plays an important role in regulating the temperature of the planet because clouds form when excess water vapor in the atmosphere con- denses to form ice and water droplets and precipitation. WAXES 2 Solid or semisolid materials derived from petroleum distil- lates or residues. Light-colored, more or less translucent crystalline masses, slightly greasy to the touch, consisting of a mixture of solid hydrocarbons in which the paraffin series predominates. Included are all marketable waxes, whether crude scale or fully refined. Used primarily as industrial coating for surface protection. WEATHER 1 Weather is the specific condition of the atmosphere at a particular place and time. It is measured in terms of such things as wind, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, cloudiness, and precipitation. In most places, weather can change from hour-to-hour, day-to-day, and season-to-season. Climate is the average of weather over time and space. A simple way of remembering the difference is that climate is what you expect (e.g. cold winters) and ’weather’ is what you get (e.g. a blizzard). See climate. WETLAND 7 Land that stays flooded with fresh or salt water all or part of the year . WETLANDS 2 Areas regularly saturated by surface or groundwater and subsequently characterized by a prevalence of vegeta- tion adapted for life in saturated-soil conditions. WOOD ENERGY 2 Wood and wood products used as fuel, including round- wood (i.e., cordwood), limbwood, wood chips, bark, saw- dust, forest residues, and charcoal. 14 Note: This glossary is composed of terms used in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1999. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-1997. (EPA-236-R-99-003. April 1999) EPA’s STATE AND LOCAL CLIMATE CHANGE PROGRAM REFERENCES 1 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Global Warming website, http://www.epa.gov/globalwarming. February 26, 1999. 2 Energy Information Administration, Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 1997, DOE/EIA- 0573(97), U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC. October 1998. [See http://www.eia.doe.gov] 3 Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1997, DOE/EIA-0387(97), U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC., July 1998. 4 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. [See http://www.unfccc.de] 5 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change, Cambridge University Press: New York, 1996. 6 Cooper’s Comprehensive Environmental Desk Reference, Arthur R. Cooper, Sr., Van Nostrand Reinhold: New York, 1996. 7 Miller, G. Tyler, Jr., Living in the Environment, An Introduction to Environment Science, sixth edition, 1990. 8 Davis, Stacy, Transportation Energy Data Book, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Edition 17, 1997. 9 Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, website at http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, February 26, 1999. 10 Resources for the Future, Weathervane website, http://www.weathervane.rff.org/glossary/index.html, February 26, 1999. 11 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Ozone Depletion Glossary, http://www.epa.gov/ozone/defns.html, February 26, 1999. 15